BEHAVIOURISM

BEHAVIORISM

       I.            Definition of Behaviorim 

Behaviorism (or behaviourism), also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior), is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking, and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment. (wikipedia.com)

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action (Parkay & Hass, 2000).

Behavior is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as: “To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction” (1930, p.11).

In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000).

In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the library to do homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.

    II.            Phsycology Behaviorism

1.      Precursors

A.    Wilhelm Wundt

Wundt is often called “the father of experimental psychology.” He conceived the subject matter of psychology to be “experience in its relations to the subject” (Wundt 1897: 3). Wundt — originally trained as a physiologist — fully expected that the structures and processes introspective analysis uncovered in experience would parallel structures and processes physiological investigation revealed in the central nervous system.

B.     Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Pavlov’s successful experimental discovery the laws of classical conditioning (as they came to be called), by way of contrast, provided positive inspiration for Watson’s Behaviorist manifesto. According to Pavlov, that there are two kinds of organism activities:

Ø  Reflexive activity is organism activity that is realized by the organism itself. The organism makes response in unrealized condition as reaction of  the stimulus.

Ø  Realization activity

Pavlov’s experiment is influential to the process of learning, for example in habit formation.

C.    Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

Edward Thorndike, in a similar methodological vein, proposed “that psychology may be, at least in part, as independent of introspection as physics” (Thorndike 1911: 5) and pursued experimental investigations of animal intelligence. In experimental investigations of puzzle-solving by cats and other animals, he established that speed of solution increased gradually as a result of previous puzzle exposure. Such results, he maintained, support the hypothesis that learning is a result of habits formed through trial and error, and Thorndike formulated “laws of behavior,” describing habit formation processes, based on these results. Most notable among Thorndike’s laws (presaging Skinnerian operant conditioning) is his Law of Effect:

Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond . (Thorndike 1911)

2.      John B. Watson: Early Behaviorism

Watson coined the term “Behaviorism” as a name for his proposal to revolutionize the study of human psychology in order to put it on a firm experimental footing.

He viewed psychology as one of the natural sciences, an objective discipline to predict and even control behavior. He had no use for delving into the unconscious. He felt everything that you needed to know you could see for yourself through your own powers of observation. He was originally an animal psychologist, and he believed that the differences in behavior patterns of humans and animals were nominal.

We may have multiple personae, which is not the same as multiple personalities. Problems arise, as they always do, when one aspect of the psyche predominates. The objective is to know your personal and use it as necessary, but to also know that it is only a small piece of your Self.

3.      Intermediaries

A.     Edward Tolman

Tolman’s purposive behaviorism attempts to explain goal-directed or purposive behavior, focusing on large, intact, meaningful behavior patterns or “molar” behavior (e.g., kicking a ball) as opposed to simple muscle movements or “molecular” behavior (e.g., various flexing of leg muscles). For Tolman, stimuli play a cognitive role as signals to the organism, leading to the formation of “cognitive maps” and to “latent learning” in the absence of reinforcement.

B.     Clark Hull

Clark Hull undertook the ambitious program of formulating an exhaustive theory of such mechanisms intervening between stimuli and responses: the theory was to take the form of a hypothetical-deductive system of basic laws or “postulates” enabling the prediction of behavioral responses (as “output variables”) on the basis of external stimuli (“input variables”) plus internal states of the organism (“intervening variables”).

Hull’s specific proposals are presently more historical curiosities than live hypotheses. Nevertheless, currently prevalent cognitive approaches share Hull’s general commitment to internal mechanisms.

4.      Radical Behaviorism: B. F. Skinner

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) is the most famous Behaviorist. He believed that people's behavior could be changed through the process of conditioning. The famous example of conditioning involves the rat in a box (designed by Skinner and appropriately named the Skinner Box). The rat learned that if it presses a lever, a food pellet is released. This positive reinforcement ensures that the behavior will be repeated and is called operant conditioning. This is similar to the famous experiment conducted by the Russian behaviorist Ivan Pavlov. He would ring a bell every time he served his dog a meal, the end result being that the dog would salivate in preparation for a snack whenever he heard a bell, even if no food was served.

Skinner divide the behavior to be two:

1)      Innate behavior (respondent behavior) that is behaviorism that is emerged by distinct stimulus/ reflexive behaviorism.

2)      Operant behavior is behaviorism that is emerged by unknown stimulus, but by stimulus itself. Operants followed by reinforcement (e.g., food or water) increase in frequency and come under control of discriminative stimuli (e.g., lights or tones) preceding the response. Skinner stressed prediction and control as his chief explanatory desiderata, and on this score he boasts that “experimental analysis of behaviour” on radical behaviorist lines “has led to an effective technology, applicable to education, psychotherapy, and the design of cultural practices in general” (Skinner 1987: 75). Even the most strident critics of radical behaviorism, I believe, must accord it some recognition in these connections. Behavior therapy (based on operant principles) has proven effective in treating phobias and addictions

 III.            Kinds of Behaviorism

We recognized that the behavior of individuals or organisms can be formed. when we talk about behavior, it differed with behaviorism. So here we can divided two ways of those words. Firstly is about kinds of behavior. The behavior of humans can be clarified into reflexive behavior and non-reflexive behavior.

1.       Reflexive behavior

Reflexsive behavior in infants is not too unlike instinct in an animal.  Reflxsive behavior could include grasping, sucking, and leg flailing (walking)  THese are the servival skills every healthy baby is born with.  Grasping, in order keep from falling, stay close to the mom..., sucking, to drink from the mom immediatley to keep from starving, since it cannot yet utilize solid foods, and walking.  I do not know what walking does for the baby, other than for practice later on, because, even if the baby had the coodenation to walk, phisacally, it's back would not be able to support the body.  These skills are manditory for immediate servival.

2.       Non-reflexive Behavior

This behavior is controlled or regulated by the central consciousness of the brain. in this connection, after the stimulus is received by receptors and transmitted to the brain as the nerve center, then going the response through the afektor. the process of awareness is called as a psychological process. This is the dominant behavior in humans, besides the reflexive behaviors. when the reflexive behavior can not be established or controlled because of the naturally occurring not the case with non reflexive behavior. in which this behavior can be shaped and controlled.

Historically there have been three types of Behaviorism studied:

• Methodological Behaviorism: Proponents of this theory believe that only the study of the actions of humans should be studied. There should be no study of the mental thoughts of humans and animals. Concepts, beliefs, thoughts, desires, emotions should not be studied or related to ones actions. John Watson was a chief proponent of this study.
• Psychological Behaviorism: Proponents of this theory have the goal of studying the observable behaviors of a person and relating them to previous stimuli that they have encountered and determining how that stimuli produced that action. B.F. Skinner was a chief proponent of this study.
• Analytical Behaviorism: Proponents of this theory believe that a person’s beliefs, concepts, and thoughts are a direct relation to the stimuli that they encounter in their life. According to analytical behaviorists, a persons thoughts can be studied and predicted based upon their behavior. Gilbert Ryle was a chief proponent of this study.

4. FORMATION OF BEHAVIORISM

As we know that behaviorism is attitude which are taught. Conected with thing one of the problem is how to form attitude which is relevan with what is  wanted.

1.      Formation  of behaviorism with conditioning or habit

One of method formation behaviorism can do with conditioning or habit. With the method familiarize to do attitude as we are wanted,finally will be formed those attitude. For example the children are familiarized  to get up early morning, be thankful  if we are given something by someone.this way based on “conditioning of learning” either created by Pavlov or Thorndike and skinner( lih Hergenhahn1976). Althought between Pavlov ,thorndikeand skinner has different idea which dont 100% same,but the expert has the view  which didnt different one another. Conditioning of Pavlov is known as classical conditioning, conditioning of Thorndike is known as Instrumental conditioning and  Skinner as Operan Conditioning.

2.      Formation of behaviorism with Insight

Beside formation attitude with conditioning or habit formation attitude can do with Insight. For example not late when coming to the class because those thing can distrub the other friends. This way based on“Cognitive learning theory”is learn Accompanied with insightif experiment of Thorndike in the study which important is exercise. So in Kohler experiment in study which important is insight.

3.      Formation behaviorism with use Model

Beside the method formation attitude with conditioning and Insight, formation behaviorism can do to use model or example. If the people say that the parent as example for their children, that thing show formation attitude with use model. This way based on “Social learning theory” or “Observational learning theory” which created by Bandura (1977).

5.  Some Behavior Theories

Behavior could not be undone from individual condition itself and surrounding where is. Behavior  is droved by some motifs until the human … any some of theories, are:

1.      Instinct Theory

This theory is proposed by Mc Dougall as forerunner from social psychology, who published the first social psychology book. According to Mc Dougall, behavior is caused by instinct. Instinct is behavior that innate, and instinct would change because of experience. His opinion got incisive response from F. Allfort , be of a certain opinion that behavior is caused by many factors, included surrounding people with their behavior.

2.      Drive Theory

Drive theory has a starting point at view that organism has urging or pushing that is called drive. This drive connected with organism necessity that urging behavior organism. If organism has necessity, and organism want to full fill their necessity, so that will occur strained situation in that organism. If organism behavior  and can fill their necessity, so will occur reduction from urging.

3.      Incentive Theory

Drive theory has a starting point at opinion that organism behavior is caused by any incentive. By incentive will urge organism to behavior. Incentive or we usually name reinforcement. Reinforcement there are positive and negative. Positive reinforcement is  related with reward, whereas negative reinforcement is related with punishment. Positive reinforcement will urge organism to act, whereas negative reinforcement will be able to hamper in organism.

4.      Attribute Theory

This theory explained about behavior motivations. Did  behavior  cause by internal authorizing signature (like motive, attitude etc.) or by external  condition. This theory is proposed by  Fritz Heider and this theory relevance social psychology. Basically behaviorism is not only get internal attribute, but also get external attribute.

5.      Kognitive  Theory

When someone has to choose behavior, which one has to do, generally someone will choose behavior alternative which will bring big utility for him. This is called subjective expected utility (SEU). By capability to choose, it means thinking factor to has role in deciding choice. By capability to think someone will see what has it occurred as consideration. In SEU model individual important which prominent. But someone opponent.